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Conflict apparent on the West Coast as marine protection recommendations released Rebecca McLeod Aug 15

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I have been watching with interest the developments over on the West Coast as the local community moves closer to becoming the first to implement a regional marine protection framework under the Marine Protected Areas Policy and Implementation Plan.

About a year ago, the West Coast Marine Protection Forum released a consultation document and called for submissions. This document represented a huge effort by a number of different stakeholders, who had been researching, consulting and debating on the issues around this enormous task since 2005. Having taken a year to consider 1300 submissions, the Forum has recently made recommendations to the Ministers of Conservation and Fisheries about the approach to marine protection over an area that extends all the way from Kahurangi in the north, to south of Jackson’s Bay.

The recomended locations for the four MPAs (in red) and additional educational showcase sites (in blue)
The recomended locations for the four MPAs (in red) and additional educational showcase sites (in blue)

Whilst the Forum has successfully managed to agree upon the locations of four marine protected areas (MPAs), they were unable to reach a consensus about the boundaries of these and the levels of marine protection within each. So instead of presenting the Ministers with a decisive and cohesive package of protected areas, they have provided two or three options for each site. These typically consist of an option that is not far removed from that in the consultation document (2009), and then one or two alternative options that are heavily influenced by either the commercial fishing sector or environmental interests. Not surprisingly, the “fishing option” is reduced in size and/or the level of protection (such as allowing some types of fishing to carry on), and the “environmental option” typically incorporates a larger area with a higher proportion of that to be no take marine reserve.

Perhaps the most extreme example of the influence of commercial fishers versus environmentalists is the MPA at Kahurangi. Here, Option A covers an area of 665 km², and extends from the tide line to about 20 km offshore. Option B, which wasn’t presented in the original consultation document, covers 85 km² and extends 5 km offshore. Sorry, but I’m not taking any bets on who influenced Option B.

The Forum has stated that due to the conflicting views both within the Forum and from submitters, they were unable to reach a consensus about the boundaries and protection levels at each site. So it will be very interesting to see how the Ministers respond to such polarized recommendations – surely they have to give a very high weighting to the target of 10% of the New Zealand marine environment being protected?

The commercial fishing sector has apparently argued that without some form of financial compensation for reduced fishing grounds, the industry is in effect giving without receiving any form of gain. The Gifts versus Gains approach was central to making progress by the Guardians of Fiordland’s Fisheries and the Marine Environment, and in my view requires all involved to take a step back and look at the big picture. For the fishers, rather than looking merely at the reduction in fishable area as potential lost income, perhaps they could consider the gains that are likely in terms of improved chances of long term sustainability of fisheries due to the many proven benefits of MPAs for fisheries (such as providing refuge for adults and protected space for juveniles).

Whatever the outcome, there are some very positive aspects to the Forum’s recommendations from a scientific perspective. The first of these, is that the area of the West Coast under marine reserve protection is definitely going to increase. Without a doubt. Currently with a huge 0% (she says sarcastically) of the coastal area in marine reserves, things can only improve from here.

In my opinion, one of the coolest things about the proposed MPAs is their proximity to National Parks. All of the four proposed MPA sites are situated alongside National Parks, and this will provide for a continuum of protection from, in many cases, the tops of mountains, to the depths of the sea. If Option B at the Gorge site is accepted, it will be the first MPA in the country to provide protection from the tide line to the edge of the continental shelf, where underwater canyons abound. Ecologists have increasingly been demonstrating the importance of such connectivity for processes including the movement of energy and animals, and the functioning of lovely healthy ecosystems that extend far beyond the immediate environment. Yes, that reef you’re snorkeling on is vulnerable to the state of the environment up in the hills, and to some extent vice versa.

I could rabbit on about marine protection and the situation on the West Coast for ages… Oh whoops, it seems I already have! But as you may have guessed, this is an area I’m particularly passionate about. Time for you guys to put your two cents in – I look forward to your comments and questions. Anything that gives me an opportunity to write more…

Related Posts:

Community based marine management in practice – the West Coast example

10% by 2010? Yeah right!

The birds and the bees… and the trees? Rebecca McLeod May 25

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I have perfected the art of ‘purposeful stops’ when I’m out running. It’s nothing that countless runners before me haven’t mastered – the sudden need to tighten a shoelace or stretch that hamstring… Unfortunately the laces on my new shoes are annoyingly well behaved, and so I have been conjuring up other excuses to take a break, like staring intently at some small plant on the side of the track, trying very hard to look like an interested botanist should someone pass by. The other day, on a track near Dunedin I stopped and gazed purposefully upwards to the forest canopy. And what I saw surprised me – most of the leaves were full of holes and were all raggedy around the edges. It seemed that a lot of bugs had been hard at work.

It reminded me of a study that was published in the journal Ecology a few months ago where the question was asked Do trees grow faster in the presence of birds? Many birds obviously feed on insects and these scientists wanted to know whether this predation had a measurable impact on the number of insects and the growth rate of the trees. The reasoning being that leaf loss due to insect munching causes lower rates of photosynthesis, and sap-sucking insects incur a further energetic cost. Sounds like a simple enough question, until you consider the logistics involved with excluding birds from 7 meter high spruce trees!

The ecologists measured and compared tree growth rates between trees to which birds had full access, and those covered by bird-netting (effectively bird-exclusion zones). After a year it was found that more often than not, bird-excluded trees had slower growth rates and around 60% more insect herbivores on them.

New Zealand has suffered a dramatic and well documented decline of native birds. I began to wonder whether ecologists here have ever tried to quantify the potential impact of this decline on the health of our native forests. Here we are all worrying about possums! Could out-of-control insects be doing more damage?

Dave Kelly, an Associate Professor in the School of Biological Sciences at Canterbury University has spent many years researching the ecology of New Zealand forests. He emphasized that studies around the world looking at relationships between bird abundance and tree health do not have very consistent findings, and was quick to point out the complexities of this issue here in New Zealand. True, many of our forest dwelling native birds have declined, but in many cases their ecological role as insect predators may have been taken over by birds such as chaffinches and blackbirds that were introduced by European settlers. “Some of these exotic insect-eating birds get deep into native forest, so I suspect the insectivore guild of birds is still well represented in most parts of New Zealand despite the big changes in avifauna.”

Dr Kelly isn’t aware of any similar bird-exclusion studies being carried out here and perhaps this isn’t so surprising – it would be near impossible to carry out a well replicated bird exclusion experiment on our forest giants. But there is evidence that insect herbivory is impacting our native plants. For example, the threatened native mistletoe – thought to be in decline due to pressure from possums – actually loses more leaf area to insects than possums on an annual basis. Now, this isn’t to say that possums don’t love tucking into mistletoe. But, be it possums or insects that are to blame for our stressed-out forests, it could be argued that the solution is essentially the same. Insect-eating birds such as kaka, tomtit, fantails and robins have declined in response to predation by introduced mammals, including possums that feed upon eggs. So, controlling possum numbers should lead not only to less forest being consumed by them, but also to an increase in bird numbers and perhaps more natural control on those ravenous insects.

I thought I’d leave the last word to an author of a recent review on bird-tree relationships published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences:

“In sum, many investigations in terrestrial and aquatic habitats, both natural and human-dominated, find that bird predation decreases invertebrate prey populations. Most studies that examined cascading effects of birds on plants found them, in some cases, with positive economic consequences for humans. In stark contrast, bird persecution may have devastating consequences. Although information is only anecdotal, apparently the “war against the sparrows,” part of a pest-control campaign launched in China during Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward, led to massive increases in pest insects and, thus, crop damage, ultimately contributing to a catastrophic famine from 1958–1962 in which 30 million Chinese died from starvation.” [C. J. Whelan, et. al., Ecosystem Services Provided by Birds, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1134: 25–60 (2008)]

Community based marine management in practice – the West Coast example Rebecca McLeod Feb 09

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The South Island’s West Coast Marine Protection Forum looks set to be the first region to put a marine protected area (MPA) proposal to the Government under the new(ish) MPA Policy and Implementation Plan, with the group recently wrapping up an extensive consultation process. The proposal that was put out for public comment outlined four main sites and five smaller areas for a range of protection measures including marine reserves and fisheries act protected areas, contained within the area from just north of Karamea to just south of Haast. More than 1100 submissions were received, signaling that New Zealanders really care about this relatively remote part of the country.

The proposed network of marine protected areas that was put out for consultation last year

The proposed network of marine protected areas that was put out for public consultation last year

The process has been a lengthy one with the forum, which includes a wide range of stakeholders (fishers, iwi, environmental groups, tourism etc.), being established five years ago. The MPA Policy and Implementation Plan encourages a community-based approach to marine management, and was established following the successful introduction of the Fiordland Marine Management Area by the stakeholder group The Guardians of Fiordland in 2005. The Labour-led Government obviously believed that this community-led initiative was more likely to result in successful MPA introductions than the traditional “top down” approach where the Department of Conservation (DoC) proposed sites for future reserves and often faced intense public opposition.

Whilst I am very supportive of the new approach, I have in the past voiced concerns about the degree to which scientific knowledge of the marine environment will be considered during the decision making process. I was initially quite alarmed to see that the West Coast Forum did not contain any marine scientists. However, a trawl through the minutes of the forum meetings revealed that members did indeed seek advice and briefings from scientists including those from DoC, the Ministry of Fisheries and NIWA. Scientists nationwide were also given the opportunity to comment during the public consultation process. The West Coast forum was established prior to the new policy, and so future regional groups will be required to have at least one scientist on each committee.

Being a remote and wild stretch of coast, it is perhaps not surprising that the level of scientific knowledge and understanding about marine life and ecosystem functioning in this region is not as high as other parts of the country. In days gone, opponents used such knowledge gaps to argue against marine protection. The new system is based on habitat classification, as it is widely accepted that species assemblages are largely predicted by physical features of habitat such as substratum type (sand, reef etc.) and water depth. Such information is relatively easy to obtain, and a spread of MPAs among different habitat types makes protection more inclusive, and provides for species that migrate among different habitat types during their life cycle. The proposal on the West Coast therefore includes, among other habitats, estuaries, coastal and offshore reefs and sand flats.

The West Coast process is far from settled – now that the submissions have been analyzed, the proposal will be modified accordingly prior to being submitted to Minter’s of Fisheries and Conservation for consideration. The members of this forum deserve credit for putting in the years of hard work, debate and consultation. Unfortunately, on a national level we are far from 10% by 2010, but at least things are moving in the right direction.

Science in danger of being diluted in marine reserve decisions Rebecca McLeod Feb 02

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In light of recent marine protection developments on the South Island’s West Coast, I have reposted a piece I wrote for the Science Media Centre back in 2008. I will write more soon about the West Coast – I am still trying to figure out the extent to which scientific information guided the decision making process there.

I recently went to a talk by Kim Hill entitled “Is science something we should fear?”

Being a scientist, I thought Kim was joking. Why would the public not value and embrace the knowledge and lessons learned by people that in essence, spend their time trying to better understand and improve the world? It started me thinking about the role that scientists should have in guiding decisions about how we manage our environment, in particular our coastal marine areas.

New Zealand has an excellent reputation for marine conservation, due to initiatives including our quota management system and the growing numbers of marine reserves. The Government is currently developing a framework that will essentially allow locals to decide how they want marine protection measures to proceed around their coasts.

This move is occurring partly in response to very vocal opposition to proposed marine reserves in some parts of the country. The idea is that by involving the community in the decision process, people will have a vested interest in the outcomes, resulting in a higher level of support for the introduced protection measures.

The framework for these local groups will be similar to that of the Fiordland Marine Guardians; a group of “stakeholders” (e.g. fishers, tangata whenua, tourism operators etc.), who proposed a series of conservation measures to be established in the fjords. Following many years of discussion, negotiation, and compromise, the Guardians presented a proposal to Parliament in 2003, and in 2005 the Fiordland Marine Management Act was established. The protection measures include 10 marine reserves, reductions in recreational quota, and restrictions on commercial fishing areas, anchoring etc. These decisions were guided by the expert opinion and knowledge of a marine ecologist from Otago University.

In February 2008 the Department of Conservation and the Ministry of Fisheries released an implementation strategy for this new regional approach to marine management. The document outlines how a forum of up to 14 stakeholders will be appointed in each of the defined regions in NZ. These stakeholders will encompass tangata whenua, commercial fishers, recreational users, conservation groups, tourism operators, aquaculture industry, minerals industry… and scientists.

It will be the task of each forum to reach a consensus on areas to be proposed for marine protection, and make recommendations of what the protection measures should involve. Each of the stakeholders will have equal status in discussions and decision-making. This is the part that concerns me.

Processes that occur in the marine environment and marine ecosystems are inherently complex and can vary significantly over small distances, and also over time. The effectiveness of protection measures are likely to be dependent upon what they consist of, where they are placed, and how big an area they cover.

For example, in the fjords it appears that the new marine reserves are differing in their ability to “recover”. In Doubtful Sound, we have found that changes in crayfish numbers can be related to the amount of food that is available at each location. Near the output of the Manapouri hydroelectric power station, where increased freshwater has led to a decline in mussels and other clams (crayfish food), crayfish are not recovering.

In contrast, in other marine reserves where there is plenty of crayfish food, crayfish numbers are rapidly increasing. This is just one of many examples that demonstrate the success of a marine protected area (MPA) can vary significantly depending on its location, shape and size.

Whilst it is incredibly important to have the support of the local community for MPAs, it is equally, if not more important to get the characteristics of the MPA correct in the first place. Otherwise, it is possible that no amount of protection will lead to “recovery” of the marine ecosystem. To increase the likelihood of designing an MPA that is going to be effective, management recommendations put forward by the regional forums need to critically evaluate all reliable knowledge and data pertaining to the marine environment in question.

And keep in mind that this information will not necessarily come solely from scientists. The extensive local knowledge of other interested parties such as fishers and tangata whenua has a large role to play here too. My point is that debate and negotiation from all interested parties should be based upon the best available knowledge, and where available, data.

To provide advice about how to design effective MPAs, scientists need answers to questions such as: What lives there? How fast do things grow and how much do they move around? Where does the food come from that is supporting the community? Where do the young come from? Are there any ongoing impacts?

It is paramount that decisions regarding the placement and degree of MPAs are based upon such fundamental ecological knowledge, and you would be surprised just how little is known about these processes on a small scale around our coasts. So, to support management recommendations and decisions that will have a high likelihood of success, it is essential that the Government funds fundamental ecological research in our coastal seas.

Earlier I said that I was concerned about scientists being considered as stakeholders in these regional forums. These concerns are due to the fact that when it comes to deciding upon management recommendations, scientists will effectively have one 14th of the vote.

I am concerned that such a small influence will lead to expert scientific advice getting diluted. Ask any scientist that has witnessed or been involved in the process of the creation of an MPA: “was it big enough?” And they will invariably say “NO!” Because more often than not during the consultation and negotiation process, the size of the desirable MPA gets whittled down to a fraction of it’s former self.

The question to these scientists then becomes: “Do you think it will still work?” And that is where many scientists will have doubts. I strongly believe that whilst public consultation is very valuable and necessary, scientific knowledge and advice must not be diluted when it comes to making decisions about the future of marine management in New Zealand.

We are entering exciting times with respect to the marine environment. One hopes that in years to come, all New Zealanders will be able to take a short trip to their local marine reserve, and explore an intact and healthy marine ecosystem.

For this vision to become a reality, scientists need to get involved in their local communities and communicate science effectively, so that the public will begin to appreciate that science is definitely something to value, not fear.

Solved: the problem of the cross-dressing frogs Rebecca McLeod Nov 03

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The global plight of amphibians received a lot of attention last year – the official Year of the Frog. Just in case you missed it, amphibians are currently undergoing a worldwide extinction crisis, with 32% of all species threatened with extinction. The reasons for this sorry state of affairs are believed to be many – loss of habitat, increased incidence of disease, competitive exclusion from introduced species, climate change, increased UV radiation, pollution, predation, and overexploitation.

But I don’t want this to be yet another story documenting the alarming state of our global ecosystem. Recently I attended a very inspiring seminar given by Jen Germano – and it gave me hope that innovative approaches to conservation might just lead to some species recovering to healthy levels. Germano is a doctoral student at Otago University who is about to submit her PhD thesis under the supervision of Drs Phil Bishop and Alison Cree, and in collaboration with Landcare Research scientist Dr Frank Molinia.

A Maud Island frog (Leiopelma pakeka)

A Maud Island frog (Leiopelma pakeka)

Germano has spent the past 5 years focusing on ways to improve the success of conservation efforts for New Zealand native frogs (genus Leiopelma). New Zealand currently has 4 species of native frog – all classified as endangered – and 3 species that are believed to be extinct. Our frogs are from an archaic lineage and have a few traits that set them apart from those inhabiting other parts of the globe. Most notably, New Zealand native frogs do not have external eardrums, and therefore do not croak, instead communicating with chemical signals. There is also no easy way to tell males and females apart – there are no colour, size, or other morphological differences between sexes (hence the crass but attention-grabbing headline!), and this has posed problems for those trying to save them.

Jen Germano with some Maud Island froglets (babies)

Jen Germano with some Maud Island froglets (babies)

A proactive approach is being taken to frog conservation in this country, and many organizations are involved with efforts to breed and translocate frogs, to encourage sustainable populations. With other endangered species captive breeding populations have provided a form of “insurance”, but one major problem has arisen for NZ frogs – whilst our zoos have put a great deal of effort into starting captive frog colonies, they haven’t been able to successful breed any of the native frogs. This setback led Germano to develop a method for telling apart males and females based on hormone levels in their urine. The method is relatively non-invasive, and has allowed Germano and her colleagues to sex Maud Island frogs with 94% certainty. The ability to identify the sex of our native frogs is a big leap forward for captive breeding and translocation programs, as now they will be able to provide even sex ratios, which will hopefully lead to higher breeding success. Germano has been passing on her skills to staff at Auckland Zoo and Orana Park, where captive breeding programs are underway.

Germano explains that until recently, very little was known about the basic life history of our native frog species. “While I was working on frog translocations for my Masters project, I saw many of the problems that other scientists were facing when working with these frogs and it was obvious that there were huge gaps in the knowledge that we had for the basic biology of our endemic species and in the information that managers and scientists needed to conserve them.” A large part of Germano’s thesis involved determining the breeding season of Maud Island frogs – and surprisingly she found it is likely to occur in mid winter. Germano has also discovered that Maud Island frogs have incredibly low sperm counts, which may also help to explain why their numbers are so low.

With her PhD thesis soon to be submitted, Germano will be heading to Memphis Zoo in the USA to begin a position as a postdoctoral researcher in amphibian reproductive biology. But she can leave with the satisfaction of knowing that the Maud Island frogs and those working to save them in a much better position than when she began her studies.

The largest remaining population of native frogs in NZ exists on Maud Island, a predator-free island in the Marlborough Sounds.

The largest remaining population of native frogs in NZ exists on Maud Island, a predator-free island in the Marlborough Sounds.

Southern right whale population on the rebound Rebecca McLeod Oct 14

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Southern right whales, hunted perilously close to extinction last century, appear to be making a remarkable recovery in New Zealand according to recent research. For the past four years a group of scientists from Auckland and Otago Universities, the Department of Conservation and the Australian Antarctic Division have been sailing south to the Auckland Islands to count and identify individual whales that go there to breed and calve. Recent DNA matches of whales recorded in both the Auckland Islands and mainland New Zealand have shown that the animals migrate between these two areas and likely form one intermingling population. Certain individuals have also been seen at the Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, mainland New Zealand and South Australia – these animals certainly get around!

The research group sails to the Auckland Islands on the R.V. Evohe, and then conducts surveys from small boats. Here they are in Port Ross.

The research group sails to the Auckland Islands on the R.V. Evohe, and then conducts surveys from small boats. Here they are in Port Ross.

Individual whales are able to be identified by unique markings on their skin. These white patches are aggregations of crustaceans, called cyamids, which cluster around skin calluses.

Individual whales are able to be identified by unique markings on their skin. These white patches are aggregations of crustaceans, called cyamids, which cluster around skin calluses.

These patches of cyamids remain remarkably consistent year on year.

These patches of cyamids remain remarkably consistent year on year.

Results of genetic analyses by Professor Scott Baker and his team at Auckland and Oregon State Universities indicate that the New Zealand population of southern rights was reduced to as few as 50 reproductive females following years of hunting in the 1800s and early 1900s, and further illegal whaling of the species by the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 60s. Since the 1960s the population appears to have been steadily increasing. Ten years ago the population was estimated to include about 900 whales, and the preliminary findings of the latest surveys, indicate that numbers have likely doubled since then. According to Dr Simon Childerhouse, the leader of the most recent expeditions, the rate of recovery of New Zealand southern right whales appears to be at least as high as that seen for populations in Australia and South Africa. In contrast, populations of northern right whales are incredibly depleted, and do not appear to be recovering. Despite right whales being protected in the northern hemisphere, mortality from ship strike and entanglement in fishing gear appears to be outweighing natural population increase. In this sense, southern right whales are fortunate – their natural home range around the Southern Ocean and coastal and offshore New Zealand, has relatively low volumes of shipping traffic.

Southern rights are baleen whales, and feed upon zooplankton such as copepods and euphausids.

Southern rights are baleen whales, and feed upon zooplankton such as copepods and euphausids.

Although, as Dr Will Rayment from the University of Otago explains, as the species starts to recolonise mainland New Zealand, it is possible that they will be more at risk of such threats. “Historically, southern right whales have aggregated in sheltered bays, including Otago and Wellington Harbours, to breed and calve. As this species makes a resurgence around the mainland, it is expected that they will again tend to spend time in these areas – although of course since they were last here the intensity of human use of harbours has changed somewhat. Their tendency to spend time in coastal areas means that they could possibly be affected by human activities such as shipping, fishing, aquaculture, and even tidal power generation. It will be interesting to see how the species and human activity interact in coming years. Here we have a unique opportunity for proactive management of an endangered species – as opposed to reactive management, which is more often the case.”

Two southern right whales, with the R.V. Evohe anchored in the background.

Two southern right whales, with the R.V. Evohe anchored in the background.

These days, Port Ross at the northern end of the Auckland Islands, is the main breeding area for New Zealand southern rights. The whales congregate there in large numbers throughout the winter months. Dr Rayment says that there may be up to 200 individuals in the harbour at any one time, and all evidence points towards the species being highly promiscuous. During the latest trip to the Auckland Islands, it was common to see several males pursuing a female, with the female often rolling on her back in an effort to stop males from mating with her. Following a one year gestation period, females tend to return to the harbour to calve, and then spend a year nursing their calf before conceiving again – resulting in most females producing one calf every three or four years. The increase in whale numbers appears to be following a typical exponential population growth often seen in recovering populations. And the increase is starting to be noticeable in mainland New Zealand – numbers of annual whale sightings recorded by the Department of Conservation are trending upwards around Otago. The current population is estimated to be only 10% of the pre-whaling numbers, suggesting that we may well be visited by a lot more southern rights in the future. In these times of doom and gloom for the marine environment (think depleted fish stocks, marine pollution, ocean acidification…), it is uplifting to see a species making a comeback.

Southern right whales often approached the research vessels during surveys.

Southern right whales often approached the research vessels during surveys.

Last year the expedition was joined by a journalist and a photographer from National Geographic – the resulting underwater photographs are truly awesome.